{"id":66,"date":"2020-03-22T03:46:20","date_gmt":"2020-03-22T03:46:20","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/review.imagined.my\/wordpress-5.3.2\/wordpress\/?p=66"},"modified":"2020-07-30T13:56:13","modified_gmt":"2020-07-30T13:56:13","slug":"re-examining-malaysias-rainbow-history","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/review.imagined.my\/?p=66","title":{"rendered":"Re-examining Malaysia\u2019s Rainbow History"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/16NgknkMc8pTGU5H8csADJ2e7OkqFkmlG\/preview\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\"><\/iframe>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"donation\">\n<h3><ion-icon name=\"card-outline\" size=\"large\"><\/ion-icon> Enjoyed this article? Want to tip the author?<\/h3>\nFollow the instructions below:\n<br><br>\nStep 1: Bank in to our account Persatuan Sejarah Anak Muda, Maybank, 512316642160\n<br><br>\nStep 2: In the reference section name the author you&#8217;re tipping.\n<br><br>\nStep 3: Please email details of your tip to jeremy@imagined.my\n<br><br>\nThanks!\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n <meta name='description' content='Depending on who you ask, Malaysia is either an anthropologist\u2019s paradise or their inferno. In order to track the cultural and historical changes that have taken place over the course of our history, one must certainly be a glutton for punishment when you think of the extent of forces that have shaped our norms. Malaysia in its early history was primarily a collection of kingdoms that espoused Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, before becoming home to multiple Islamic sultanates. During the Colonial period, Malaysia was transferred from one Western power to another, as a colony of Portugal, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the Japanese, before returning under British rule. From independence in 1957 until the present day, Malaysian legislation and policy has greatly taken account of Islam as the official religion of the federation, as well as the continued presence of the monarchy. \nOver this period of time, Malaysia\u2019s perspective on the LGBTQ community has also undergone a drastic change, and this will serve as the crux of our discussion on the evolving norms brought about by successive changes in political rule. The historical narrative is often manipulated by the ruling class in order to further exert control over commoners and citizens; Marxist theory couches this is in terms of the \u201csuperstructure\u201d using propaganda to placate and manipulate the \u201cbase\u201d. Eric Hobsbawm, a Marxist historian, theorised such a mechanism through the concept of the \u201cinvented tradition\u201d, introduced in his book aptly named The Invention of Tradition, written alongside Terence Ranger.\n\nTo briefly summarise, the concept of the \u201cinvented tradition\u201d is a practice through which societal norms are touted as being long-standing vestiges of the past and as important elements of a society, which must therefore be upheld, despite their fairly recent origins. What differentiates invented traditions from our normal understanding of traditions is their invariant nature, and the fact that through this invariance they serve the political agenda of those in power. \n\u2018Invented tradition\u2019 is taken to mean a set of practices, normally governed by overtly or tacitly accepted rules and of a ritual or symbolic nature, which seek to inculcate certain values and norms of behaviour by repetition, which automatically implies continuity with the past.\nThe aim of this article is to track the ways in which Malaysians have viewed LGBTQ people throughout history, from pre-colonial times until the present day, and contextualise these findings in the framework of a process of \u201cinvented tradition\u201d.  We know that LGBT individuals face discrimination on a widespread level here. But has it always been this way? If not, what caused a change in narrative? And if it is indeed an invented tradition, to what end does it serve the agenda of the upper echelons of society? \nMany a politician or religious leader would have you think that the apprehension and scorn faced by members of the LGBTQ community, mostly towards homosexual men and transgendered people, are norms which have existed since time immemorial. However, we know this to be patently untrue because historical evidence has shown that when the Malay archipelago was occupied primarily by Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms, in which ideas of sex, gender, and sexuality were much more expansive and all-encompassing than the binary conception of gender that we know today. Kingdoms that occupied the Malay archipelago such as Srivijaya and Langkasuka built and left us with material evidence such as monuments and inscriptions that showcased the \u201cdynamic union, transcendence, and fluidity of male and female principles\u2026\u201d that led scholars to characterise Siva, one of the primary deities venerated by Hindus, as being androgynous or hermaphroditic. \nEast Malaysia was no stranger to variegated notions of gender and sexuality either. In Borneo, the manang bali were biological male shamans who donned female dress and took men as their spouses. They were respected by the Iban community, receiving respect due to their ritual importance and abilities in the healing arts. They bear similarities to the bissu of the Bugis people in South Sulawesi: transgendered ritual specialists who were also keepers of royal documents, thus commanded political authority. It isn\u2019t a stretch of the imagination to conclude that societies\u2019 ideas of gender and sex at the time were much more fluid than we know today; this finding also diminshes the narrative that supposedly \u201caberrant\u201d gender identities and sexualities are merely modern inventions and that the gender binary is and always has been an absolute truth. \nThe arrival of Islam in the 13th century spelt the end of Hinduism and Buddhism in Malaysia; Islam\u2019s spread was soon after bolstered by Parameswara\u2019s founding of the Malacca Sultanate which led to the religion becoming the main belief of the archipelago. There is an important point to be made here. Malaysia\u2019s current legislators, with the backing of religious leaders, state that Islam is and always has been in opposition to non-heteronormative gender identities and sexualities. Assuming that position, this would naturally imply that deviance from heteronormativity would have been actively expunged and condemned insofar as is possible since the 13th century. Thus, the persecution of the LGBTQ community would not be an \u201cinvented tradition\u201d as per Hobsbawm because its origins can be traced to a historical point in time from which is draws its legitimacy; this would then, it is argued, justify the continued persecution of the LGBTQ community today. \nFortunately, that assumption is far from the truth. While Islam has indeed rooted itself deep into Malaysian culture and governance, to a point where the two are inseparable, unorthodox manifestations of gender and sexuality not only subsisted but were also entwined in the culture of the time, even at the highest echelons. For instance, Michael Peletz in his book Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times documented the sida-sida, who were effeminate men who dressed like women and performed roles generally assigned to women. Sida-sida resided in the inner chambers of the sultan\u2019s palace and were \u201centrusted with the sacred regalia and the preservation of the ruler\u2019s special powers\u201d. They were also tasked with safeguarding the female residents of the palace, a role that would have not otherwise been relegated to them were it not for their gender identity. \nThe existence of the sida-sida is not to be regarded as an anomaly either, one merely confined to that time period and context. Anthropologist Douglas Raybeck reported that in the late 1960s Malays \u201cregard[ed] homosexuality as peculiar, different, and even somewhat humourous, but they\u2026 [did] not view it as an illness or as a serious sin\u201d. He goes on to report that he encountered several \u201cspecialised homosexual villages\u201d in and around Kota Bahru, state capital of Kelantan, generally regarded as a bastion of Malay and Islamic conservative values; one of these villages even stood adjoining the sultan\u2019s palace. These villages were the residences of male same-sex couples, most of whose careers were as transvestite performers of drama known as mak yong, which originated from Thailand, in a manner somewhat reminiscent to what we know today as \u201cdrag\u201d. These mak yong performers were by no means banished to these villages as outcasts for having same-sex relations, nor was there any evidence to suggest that they were even mistreated or the subject of discrimination. In fact, their presence was known to religious and secular authorities alike all the way up to the state level, and their art was supported and patronised by heteronormative society, including and especially the Sultan of Kelantan himself, who actually aided in their constitution. We see that for all the claims that Islamic teaching is strictly in opposition of LBGTQ identities, for better or for worse, this doesn\u2019t seem to have manifested itself in history.\nPresently, we are all too familiar with the hatred that LGBTQ people experience. How did this sentiment originate, if it has been established that isn\u2019t a historical absolute? Our most probable culprit at this point is colonisation. The biggest legacy the British left behind as Malaysia\u2019s final coloniser before independence is Section 377A of the Malaysian Penal Code,  proclaiming the illegality of homosexuality, it states::\nCarnal intercourse against the order of nature\n377A. Any person who has sexual connection with another person by the introduction of the penis into the anus or mouth of the other person is said to commit carnal intercourse against the order of nature.\nYet prima facie, it is already clear by the wording of s.377A that the law does not explicitly criminalise homosexuality as an innate characteristic per se, but rather sexual acts that are admittedly commonly associated with homosexuality. That, of course, does not preclude its application to heterosexuals who have committed the acts stipulated in the statute; thus far, this provision has only been used for prosecuting those charged with a sexual assault of that nature. However as, Enze Han, author of British Colonialism and the Criminalization of Homosexuality, posits, laws once enacted become difficult to dislodge from both a legal and psychological standpoint and it can be argued that the permanence of these laws lead the citizens it governs to form moral beliefs that are consistent with behaviours that the law rewards or punishes. In Han\u2019s words, such a law \u201c...chang[es] the social normative views of gay sex.\u201d This is a difficult point to ignore, especially in light of the hardline stance against sexual aberration taken by Christianity at that time, a fact that would have definitely influenced Malaysians subject to British rule. \n\nDespite the alluring prospect of heaping all the blame for Malaysian intolerance towards LGBTQ people onto the colonial power, this  would still be erroneous seeing that non-heteronormativity was tolerated even after independence in the late 1960s. Thus we must look elsewhere: Syariah law. As per Article 121(1A) of the Constitution of Malaysia, our nation practices a dual legal system that includes civil law and Syariah law; the latter only applying to Muslims. Unlike the provisions outlined in the Penal Code, Syariah law \ndirectly punishes same-sex sexual acts performed by both men and women, known as liwat (sodomy) and musahaqat (lesbian relations). \nInterestingly enough, these laws were not the vestige of an age old tradition or a reflection of fundamental values, but are indeed a fairly modern invention whose enactment stemmed from the then ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition competing with the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) for Malay support. With both sides promoting Islamic ideology, the Islamisation of the Malays also increased, leading to the formation of the Syariah Criminal Code in the 1980s during Dr Mahathir\u2019s first tenure. \nThus to counter a reinvigorated PAS, and capture the increasingly religious Malay voter, UMNO was driven to incorporate Islam into its political agenda, despite the fact that originally it was guided by a secular-nationalist ideology with developmental-capitalist aspirations.\nAt this juncture however our discussion has encountered a paradox: how do we reconcile Syariah law\u2019s hostility towards homosexuality with our previous assertion that historically in Malaysia Islam has tolerated and accepted LGBTQ individuals? To resolve this a discussion regarding changes in Islam\u2019s global attitudes is warranted, namely in the Middle East, the birthplace of Islam. Professor Thomas Bauer, an Islamic studies scholar from M\u00fcnster University asserted that for about a thousand years, up to 1979, there has been no documented case in the Islamic world where a man was prosecuted for consensual same-sex relations. Bauer also asserts that while Muslims of today condemn homosexuality as a Western degeneracy, this condemnation actually stems from the amalgamation of classical Islamic legal theory and notions of sexuality that were introduced by Westerners during the colonial era, when their economic and military hegemony made these ideas very influential. Furthermore, the ascent of Islamic fundamentalism during the 1980s took place concurrently with the gay rights movement in the Western bloc. Anti-LGBTQ sentiments were therefore exploited at that time for political ends as Muslim sought to rally support for themselves by painting the community as a Western social ill. \nIt is not difficult to find the relationship between the above events and the decline of LGBTQ acceptance here. Malaysia has repeatedly paraded its solidarity with other Muslim nations, and has openly decried the rise of Western imperialism especially during the rule of Dr Mahathir. The erosion of tolerance for the LGBTQ community was quite possibly nothing more than a diplomatic strategy nudged on by politicians at the time to cement alliances perceived as beneficial to the nation. As it stands, Malaysia is a member state of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation who maintains its stance in opposition of LGBTQ rights. \n Circling back to our original statement, how does this history of perceptions around LGBTQ people in Malaysia  fit into the framework of Hobsbawm\u2019s &#038; Ranger\u2019s \u201cinvented tradition\u201d? We have been able to establish that the intolerance is indeed invented in that it was never a staple of Malaysian history but rather a more recent political manoeuvre; yet to what end does it serve? Hobsbawm had theorised that these new traditions were invented to facilitate societal change and to make this societal change more palatable to those who are experiencing it, in our case, Malaysian citizens. \nWe posit that the societal change which the invention of tradition was in reaction to could be one of a few possibilities, the first of which was to acclimatise Malaysian society as it began undergoing rapid Islamisation during the 1980s onwards. Despite the majority Muslim population, Malaysia is still very much ethnically and religiously diverse. To ensure that the implementation of Islam-centric policies and laws is met with less resistance from non-Muslims, the government sought to instil the idea of the LGBTQ community as a common enemy, to create common ground in a society otherwise fractured, both culturally and geographically. This analysis of a \u201ccommon enemy\u201d can equally be applied to the second societal change, the attempt to unify and elevate the Malays. Malaysia being a federation allows individual states to make their own laws, which includes Syariah, and almost every state, if not all, criminalise and punish homosexuality under Syariah. In order to ensure the Malay community fits the mold of \u201cMuslims\u201d, analogous to those in the Middle East, this collective rejection of a so-called \u201cWestern ideal\u201d was needed to bolster Malaysia\u2019s moralistic grandstanding and curry favour with prospective political allies. For example, in 1998, top officials from the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), the ruling political party at the time, launched the People\u2019s Anti-Homosexual Voluntary Movement to lobby for stricter laws against homosexual acts. Whether intentional or not, the establishment of such a \n\nmovement sent a message that the Malay identity is inherently tied to the rejection of LGBTQ identities.\nThere is a plethora of evidence over the course of Malaysia\u2019s history to show how homophobic attitudes in society have been weaponised against those who would challenge the ruling class. Anwar Ibrahim\u2019s sodomy trial was considered by many to be a farce engineered to derail his political career, and much more recently, the alleged gay sex video scandal concerning Azmin Ali that has caused much political furor. It is important to be focused on the right issues amidst this chaos: not whether Anwar or Azmin were indeed guilty of the acts alleged by their political opponents, but rather if these alleged acts should be considered immoral or illegal in the first place. Amidst the political crossfire, LGBTQ folk in Malaysia are subject to physical and psychological abuse, rejection by society, conversion therapy, and erasure from political discourse. \nIf we ever hope to move forward in realising Malaysia Baru, injustices for all marginalised communities need to be addressed and remedied; like it or not, we\u2019re here, we\u2019re queer, get used to it.'> \n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>by Bryan Cheah<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"templates\/template-full-width.php","format":"standard","meta":{"spay_email":""},"categories":[3],"tags":[33,30,32,31],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v18.6 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Re-examining Malaysia\u2019s Rainbow History - Imagined Malaysia Review<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/review.imagined.my\/?p=66\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Re-examining Malaysia\u2019s Rainbow History - 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